Sudan's civil war since April 2023 has displaced over 14 million people, with widespread violence, famine, and mass atrocities. The conflict between SAF and RSF threatens regional stability and justice.
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Sudan is in the midst of an unparalleled humanitarian disaster. Since the outbreak of civil war in April 2023, more than 14 million Sudanese[1] have been forced from their homes, marking the largest displacement crisis of the year, according to the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The war has devastated communities, fractured families, and severely destabilized the region.
What is Sudan Conflict?
A Historical and Political Overview
Sudan, a nation marked by decades of political instability and conflict, has witnessed power struggles and civil wars since gaining independence in 1956 from British-Egyptian rule. The ongoing power struggle between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF), loyal to General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF), led by General Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), has pushed the country into another devastating crisis.
A History of Political Turmoil
• 1956: Sudan gains independence, but stability remains elusive.
• 1958: Lt. Gen. Ibrahim Abboud stages a coup, setting the precedent for military rule.
• 1969: Colonel Jaafar al-Nimairy seizes power, holding it until 1985.
• 1989: Omar al-Bashir establishes an Islamic-military government that dominates for three decades.
• 2019: Bashir is ousted, leading to a fragile transition to democracy.
The country has been embroiled in civil wars, particularly between the predominantly Muslim north and the Animist and Christian south, with the Sudanese People's Liberation Army (SPLA) fighting for greater political rights.
The Current Conflict: SAF vs. RSF
The conflict erupted in April 2023, driven by a power struggle between:
• Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF): Led by Gen. Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, the SAF aims to maintain military control and resist the growing influence of paramilitary forces.
• Rapid Support Forces (RSF): Led by Gen. Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo (Hemedti), the RSF seeks greater autonomy and influence within the government, demanding the integration of paramilitary forces into the national army on their terms.
The war is centered around control of Sudan's political and economic resources, with both sides competing for dominance over key institutions, natural resources, and power-sharing agreements.
Darfur: The Epicenter of Violence
Darfur, home to 9 million people, has long been the center of conflict due to its ethnic diversityand strategic resources. The RSF, deeply rooted in Darfur through Hemedti’s Rizeigat tribe, has been accused of mass killings, particularly against the Masalit people, with the violence echoing the genocide of the early 2000s.
Unveiling the Displacement Crisis: A Comparative Analysis
• The scope of Sudan’s displacement crisis is unprecedented, affecting nearly 30% of its population within 18 months. To put this in perspective:
◦ The Syrian conflict, which unfolded over a decade, displaced around 13 million people[2], a number that Sudan has nearly surpassed in just over a year.
◦ The Rohingya crisis of 2017 saw 750,000 people[3] displaced within months, but the Sudan crisis exceeds this by nearly 20 times.
• IOM Director-General Amy Pope stated, “This is an underreported conflict that demands greater attention. Millions are suffering, and there is now a serious risk of regional instability spreading from the Sahel to the Horn of Africa and the Red Sea.”[4]
The Brutality of Sexual Violence: A Weapon of War
The UN Independent Fact-Finding Mission has documented sexual violence in Sudan[5] on a scale rarely seen in modern conflicts. Used deliberately as a tool of terror, the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) have been the primary perpetrators, targeting women, children, and even men in occupied regions.
• Unthinkable Acts of Sexual Abuse:
◦ Victims range from 8 to 75 years old, facing horrific abuse including gang rape, sexual slavery, and abduction.
◦ In Darfur and other regions, sexual violence has taken on the nature of ethnic cleansing, with perpetrators using racist slurs and violence to intimidate communities.
◦ Mission Chair Mohamed Chande Othman remarked: “The sheer scale of sexual violence we have documented is staggering. The vulnerable civilians of Sudan, particularly women and girls, are in dire need of urgent protection.”[6]
◦ A survivor from El Geneina shared her harrowing ordeal, recalling how her assailant told her, “We will make you, the Masalit girls, give birth to Arab children.”[7]
• Comparing Global Atrocities:
In Sudan, as in many past conflicts, accountability for perpetrators is obstructed by a complex system of impunity. Legal, political, and logistical challenges create barriers to justice, leaving victims without recourse and emboldening aggressors to continue their crimes. The situation in Sudan today echoes past atrocities, where justice was often delayed, diluted, or denied.
The Balkan Wars and Bosnian Genocide (1992–1995)
• During the Bosnian Genocide, sexual violence was systematically employed by Serbian forces against Bosniak women, aimed at destabilizing the Bosnian Muslim community. Thousands of women were subjected to rape camps, where forced impregnation was used as a means to alter the ethnic makeup of the region.
• Although the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) made historic rulings by prosecuting rape as a crime against humanity and a tool of genocide[8], many perpetrators escaped punishment. The court faced limited resources and political challenges, which hampered its ability to hold all offenders accountable.
• Survivors often had to wait years for their cases to be heard, and the trauma was exacerbated by prolonged legal procedures. Furthermore, the ICTY’s dependency on international cooperation meant that some of the most influential orchestrators of these crimes avoided justice by finding refuge in regions unwilling to extradite them.
The Rwandan Genocide (1994)
• The Rwandan Genocide saw sexual violence on an unprecedented scale. Over 250,000 Tutsi women were reportedly raped by Hutu militia groups[9], aiming to terrorize, humiliate, and inflict long-term harm on the Tutsi ethnic group.
• The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) eventually convicted some high-ranking officials for using rape as a form of genocide, setting a legal precedent. However, many low-level perpetrators evaded justice, and the tribunal’s limited scope and resources hindered its reach.
• Additionally, the slow pace of the ICTR meant that many victims lived with the aftermath of their trauma without seeing justice served. The tribunal struggled with insufficient witness protection, causing many survivors to withdraw from testifying out of fear for their safety.
The Japanese “Comfort Women” During World War II
• During World War II, the Japanese Imperial Army forced an estimated 200,000 women, mostly from Korea, China, and the Philippines, into sexual slavery, calling them “comfort women.” These women were subjected to systematic rape and abuse, often confined in military brothels to serve Japanese soldiers.
• Despite the overwhelming evidence of these atrocities, justice for comfort women has largely been denied. Post-war trials prosecuted only a small fraction of Japanese officials responsible, and Japan’s subsequent government has often denied or minimized the atrocity.
Efforts for reparations and official apologies have been stymied by political tensions and Japan’s reluctance to acknowledge the full extent of these abuses, leaving many survivors without closure. The persistence of this unresolved historical trauma underscores how political agendas can obstruct justice.
The Yazidi Genocide in Iraq (2014–Present)
• In Iraq, ISIS systematically targeted the Yazidi population, using rape and sexual slavery as tools of genocide. Thousands of Yazidi women and girls were captured, sold into slavery, and repeatedly subjected to sexual violence with the explicit intent of eradicating the Yazidi culture.
• Despite overwhelming documentation, justice for Yazidi survivors has been hampered by the lack of a unified international tribunal to address crimes committed by ISIS. Though some ISIS members have been tried in Iraqi courts, these trials often lack the framework to fully address sexual violence as a crime of genocide.
• Many Yazidi survivors still await justice, as global efforts to prosecute ISIS for genocide and crimes against humanity have been limited. Survivors like Nadia Murad, who have spoken out about their experiences, continue to campaign for international recognition and accountability, but progress remains slow.
Sudan: Echoing a Pattern of Unanswered Atrocities
The current crisis in Sudan reflects these past struggles for justice. Both the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) and the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) face allegations of using rape as a weapon to terrorize specific ethnic communities, yet the mechanisms for accountability remain insufficient. Sudanese civilians endure a system where:
• Political instability prevents local courts from effectively prosecuting war crimes. In the midst of ongoing conflict, there is little room for Sudanese judicial bodies to operate freely or impartially.
• International intervention is limited, as Sudan’s fragile political alliances complicate the involvement of international courts like the International Criminal Court (ICC). Although the ICC has jurisdiction over Sudan due to past cases, it faces challenges in enforcing warrants or gaining access to evidence.
• Survivor stigma and fear of retribution discourage many victims from coming forward. In conservative communities, the cultural stigma attached to sexual violence further silences survivors, making it even harder to build cases against perpetrators.
Why Sexual Violence? The Psychological Strategy Behind the Atrocities
In Sudan’s ongoing crisis, sexual violence is not an incidental byproduct of conflict; it is a deliberate and calculated weapon, wielded with the intent to fracture communities, sow terror, and disrupt cultural identity. The use of sexual violence in war carries layered psychological implications, affecting individuals, families, and entire communities. Understanding the motivations behind these atrocities sheds light on how psychological strategies are harnessed to exert control, impose fear, and rewrite societal norms.
- • Psychological Warfare Tactic: Sexual violence is a form of psychological warfare that goes beyond the individual to attack a community’s sense of self. It creates psychological scars that are not easily healed, transforming the survivors into living reminders of the community’s trauma.
- • Destroy ethnic and cultural identity: The perpetrators, mainly identified as forces from the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), are allegedly motivated by a desire to forcibly change the ethnic fabric of Sudanese communities. A survivor from El Geneina shared a horrifying quote from her assailant: “We will make you, the Masalit girl, give birth to Arab children.”[10] This statement exposes the intention behind such violence: to manipulate lineage and identity through forced impregnation.
- • Instill terror and submission: Rape is used as a method to impose terror, control, and ultimately submission. It sends a message to the victims’ communities, highlighting their inability to protect themselves and creating an environment of pervasive fear and helplessness. By attacking the most vulnerable, including women and children, aggressors use sexual violence to reinforce the power imbalance. This tactic not only weakens the immediate victims but instills fear in the larger community, sending a message of dominance that pervades the psyche of all who witness or hear of the atrocities.
- • Undermine the future stability of communities: When sexual violence is used on a large scale, it fractures the social bonds that hold communities together. Survivors, ostracized or stigmatized, often face lifelong psychological and physical repercussions, affecting their ability to contribute to and participate in their communities.
- • Inducing Trauma-Induced Dissociation: For many survivors, the extreme trauma inflicted through sexual violence can lead to dissociation—a psychological response where individuals detach from reality to cope with overwhelming pain. Dissociation can lead to memory gaps, emotional numbness, and a weakened sense of self, making it difficult for survivors to reintegrate into their communities or recover their identities.
Psychological Aftermath and the Need for Healing
The psychological impact of sexual violence in conflict extends far beyond the act itself. Healing is a complex process, requiring both individual and community-based approaches.
• Restoring Dignity Through Justice and Recognition: Acknowledging the suffering of survivors and providing a pathway to justice are essential for healing. Without public recognition and accountability, survivors are left feeling unseen, and the community remains haunted by unresolved trauma
• Rebuilding Social Bonds and Cultural Identity: Community-focused therapies and cultural practices can play a critical role in healing. Reconnecting survivors with their cultural identity can restore a sense of belonging and help rebuild the community’s collective resilience.
• Providing Mental Health Support: Mental health interventions, including trauma-informed counseling, are vital in addressing the psychological scars left by conflict-based sexual violence. Addressing PTSD, depression, and anxiety within communities can help survivors and their families regain a sense of stability and hope.
A Crisis Beyond Imagination: Hunger, Disease, and Despair
The impact of Sudan’s civil war is not limited to displacement and violence; it has also triggered a severe humanitarian crisis marked by famine and disease.
• The Struggle for Survival:
◦ An estimated 25 million people—more than half of Sudan’s population—are facing acute hunger, with famine conditions already evident in North Darfur.
◦ Amy Pope warned: “Hunger, disease, and sexual violence are rampant. For the people of Sudan, this is not just a crisis—it’s a living nightmare.”[11]
• Worsening Humanitarian Conditions:
◦ Many of Sudan’s medical facilities have been destroyed or occupied, leaving victims of rape and other violence with limited access to essential care.
◦ UNICEF described the situation as “one of the most acute crises in living memory,”calling for immediate aid and protective measures for the displaced population.
• The Brutality of Sudan’s Conflict:
◦ The RSF is accused of mass rapes, ethnic killings, and recruitment of child soldiers, while the SAF has been implicated in torture, arbitrary arrests, and forced displacements.
◦ The UN report highlighted that without accountability, the cycle of violence will continue. Joy Ngozi Ezeilo, a mission expert, stated: “We must break the cycle of impunity and bring the perpetrators to justice. Without accountability, Sudan’s agony will not end.”[12]
Regional Implications: The Threat of Broader Instability
The conflict in Sudan risks destabilizing the entire region, with refugee spillovers affecting Chad, South Sudan, and Egypt. The UN’s Fact-Finding Mission Chair, Mohamed Chande Othman, stressed: “There is no safe place in Sudan now, and the potential for wider regional instability is very real.”[13]
• Comparing Sudan with Other Global Crises:
◦ Unlike the Syrian civil war, which saw significant international intervention, Sudan’s crisis has been overshadowed by conflicts in Ukraine and Gaza, leading to limited global focus and resources.
◦ The Rohingya crisis drew rapid international attention, but Sudan’s ongoing tragedy remains underreported, adding to the suffering of millions.
[2] https://www.unhcr.org/syria-emergency
[3]https://www.unhcr.org/rohingya-emergency
[4]https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/10/29/conflict-condemns-sudan-to-huge-displacement-rampant-sexual-violence-un
[8]Peltola, L. (2022). Rape and Sexual Violence Used as a Weapon of War and Genocide: An Examination of Historical and Contemporary Cases of Genocidal Rape and Prosecution of Rape in International Courts. Journal of Conflict & Genocide Studies.
[9] Peltola, L. (2022). Rape and Sexual Violence Used as a Weapon of War and Genocide: An Examination of Historical and Contemporary Cases of Genocidal Rape and Prosecution of Rape in International Courts. Journal of Conflict & Genocide Studies.
[12] https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/10/sudan-un-fact-finding-mission-documents-large-scale-sexual-violence-and
