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Introduction
Social disorganization theory highlights the challenges communities face in achieving common goals and resolving persistent problems, particularly in controlling public behaviour, which can lead to increased crime. Initially proposed by Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, the theory emphasizes that neighbourhood characteristics, such as poverty, residential mobility, ethnic heterogeneity, and weak social networks, undermine a community’s ability to regulate behaviour and maintain social order. Shaw and McKay’s research in Chicago revealed that high delinquency rates persisted in certain neighbourhoods despite changes in their racial and ethnic composition, suggesting that ecological factors, rather than individual traits, largely influence crime rates.